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Social  Evolution   of   the   Argentine 
Republic 

By 
Ernesto  Que s a da 


\ 


THE  SOCIAL  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  ARGENTINE 

REPUBLIC 


BY 


HON.  ERNESTO  QUESADA 

Attorney-General  of  the  Argentine  Republic;  Professor  in  the  Universities  of 

Buenos  Ayres  and  La  Plata 


Publication  No.  636 

American  Academy  op  Political  and  ^Social  Science 

Reprinted  from  The  Annals,  May,  191 1 


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This  Reprint  is  made  from  the  May,  1911,  volume  of  THE 
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INDIVIDUAL  EFFORT  IN  TRADE  EXPANSION. 

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THE     FOURTH     INTERNATIONAL     CONFERENCE     OF     THE 
AMERICAN    STATES. 

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the    Fourth    International    Conference    of    the    American 
States. 
THE  FOURTH  PAN-AMERICAN  CONFERENCE. 

Paul  S.  Reinsch,  Delegate  to  the  Fourth  Pan-American  Con- 
ference; Professor  of  Political  Science,  University  of  Wis- 
consin. 

THE  MONROE   DOCTRINE  AT  THE  FOURTH   PAN-AMERICAN 
CONFERENCE. 

Hon.  Alejandro  Alvarez,  Of  the  Chilean  Ministry  of  Foreign 
Affairs,  Santiago,  Chile. 

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IN  LATIN-AMERICA. 
Charles  A.  Conant,  Former  Commissioner  on  the  Coinage  of 
the  Philippine  Islands,  New  York. 
CURRENT     MISCONCEPTIONS      OF     TRADE     WITH     LATIN- 
AMERICA. 

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President,   Latin-American   Chamber  of   Commerce;    Pub- 
lisher  of   the   Spanish   periodicals,   "America"   and   "Inge- 
nieria." 
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COUNTRIES. 
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phia. 
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PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  PERU. 

Albert  A.  Giesecke,  Ph.D.,  Rector  of  the  University  of  Cuzco, 
Cuzco,  Peru. 
THE  MONETARY  SYSTEM  OF  CHILE. 

Dr.  Guillermo  Subercaseaux,  Professor  of  Political  Economy, 
University  of  Chile. 
THE  SOCIAL  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 

Hon.  Ernesto  Quesada,  Attorney-General  of  the  Argentine  Re- 
public; Professor  in  the  Universities  of  Buenos  Ayres  and 
La  Plata. 
COMMERCIAL  RELATIONS  OF  CHILE. 

Hon.  Henry  L.  Janes,  Division  of  Latin-American  Affairs,  De- 
partment of  State,  Washington. 
CLOSER  COMMERCIAL  RELATIONS  WITH  LATIN-AMERICA. 

Bernard  N.  Baker,  Baltimore,  Md. 
IMMIGRATION— A  CENTRAL  AMERICAN  PROBLEM. 

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Louis,  Mo. 


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O 


a.     ^ 


THE   SOCIAL  EVOLUTION   OF  THE  ARGENTINE 

REPUBLIC1 


By  The  Hon.  Ernesto  Quesada, 
Attorney-General  of  the  Argentine  Republic;   Professor  in  the  Universities 

of  Buenos  Ayres  and  La  Plata. 


To  condense  into  a  few  pages  several  centuries  of  the 
history  of  a  nation  like  the  Argentine  Republic,  to  give  some  idea  of 
the  nature  of  the  forces  that  have  determined  the  development  of 
this  country  from  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  .period  of  its 
discovery,  to  this  the  second  decade  of  the  twentieth,  when  it  is 
celebrating  the  first  centennial  of  its  independence,  -is  a  task  at  once 
delicate  and  arduous.  For,  aside  from  these  natural  difficulties,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  avoid  all  details,  to  shun  statistics,  and  even 
to  lay  aside  historical  evidence,  in  order  to  crystallize  into  seemingly 
dogmatic  statements,  the  complicated  social  evolution  of  a  people 
in  process  of  transformation,  a  people  still  in  a  formative  period. 
It  is  a  venture  bordering  upon  the  impossible. 

A  century  after  the  commencement  of  the  conquest  of  the  Amer- 
ican continent  and  after  the  scattering  over  the  land  of  the  invading 
race,  at  once  warlike  and  religious,  an  expedition  which  was  purely 
Andalusian  discovered  the  River  Plate  in  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  continent.  Instead  of  penetrating  to  the  south,  the  expedition 
fixed  its  gaze  northward,  searching  for  a  route  by  which  to  renew 
relations  with  the  rich  district  of  the  old  empire  of  the  Incas.  This 
was  in  obedience  to  that  thirst  after  wealth  which  characterized 
the  taking  possession  of  America.  Two  centuries  later,  these  remote 
provinces  had  been  converted  into  the  very  important  viceroyship 
of  the  River  Plate.  In  one  direction  it  extended  from  the  tropical 
viceroyship  of  Peru  and  the  torrid  lands  of  Portuguese  Brazil,  to 
Cape  Horn,  lashed  by  the  raging  Antarctic  seas,  and  in  the  otber 
direction  it  stretched   from  the  chain  of  the  Andes,  which  runs  like 

•lid  wall  the  length  <>f  one  of  its  flanks,  to  the  Atlantic  '  >cean, 

'The  Arfldftny  wlahes  to  rxpros*  its  appreciation  t"  Layton  D.  Register,  Bteq., 
r.f  the  I. «w  Department  <<r  the  University  <>r  Pennsylvania,  and  t.>  Mr.  Bnrlque 
on.  of  tii.-  National  University  of  La  Plata,  <<t  ti i<-  Argentine  Republic,  for  the 
translation  "f  thin  article. 

(7°7) 
r: <y?r    f 


r 


130  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

which  bathes  its  extensive  coasts.  This  enormous  territory  thus 
embraced  every  sort  of  climate,  and  was  inhabited  by  a  hetero- 
geneous collection  of  aboriginal  races.  Its  conquest  and  colonization 
had  been  effected  upon  two  convergent  lines,  that  by  water,  by  the 
River  Plate,  that  by  land,  from  the  north.  This  impressed  upon  the 
civilization  of  these  regions  different  characteristics  which  must 
be  defined  since,  even  after  a  century  of  political  independence,  their 
mark  is  still  stamped  upon  the  ideals,  aspirations  and  conduct  of  the 
inhabitants. 

The  "Leyes  de  Indias,"2  faithful  reflections  of  the  purposes  of 
Spanish  colonization  in  America,  show  how  extraordinary  was  the 
importance  of  the  native  races,  how  relatively  few  were  the  Spanish 
conquerors  and  how  closely  the  two  races  became  mingled,  through 
the  regime  of  the  encomiendas3  the  mitas*  and  the  ya'na- 
conazgos.5  The  Spanish  colonies  were  founded  and  developed  in 
the  midst  of  a  mass  of  people,  who,  because  of  their  enormous  supe- 
riority in  point  of  numbers,  necessarily  reacted  in  turn  upon  the  small 
number  of  the  invaders,  either  by  interbreeding  with  the  latter,  or  by 
the  contact  of  daily  life,  or  by  their  superior  adaptability  to  their 
natural  environment.  The  conquerors  themselves  presented  differ- 
ent traits,  according  to  the  region  of  Spain  from  which  they  came, 
and  naturally  they  sought  to  group  and  to  settle  themselves  in  obe- 
dience to  the  ethnic  affinities  of  their  origin.  Biscayans,  Basques, 
Castillians,  Aragonese,  Andalusians,  etc.,  gave  typical  characteristics 
to  every  American  region  where  they  established  themselves.  They 
transplanted  their  social  prejudices,  their  spirit  of  communal  inde- 
pendence, their  concentrated  energy  and  their  buoyant  temperament. 
From  this  it  resulted  that  in  whatever  corner  of  America  a  particu- 
lar Spanish  strain  of  blood  was  found,  there  were  reflected  the 
traits  of  the  corresponding  district  of  Spain. 

As  the  native  races  varied  according  to  the  region,  from  those 

*01d  Spanish  legislation  for  the  Spanish-American  colonies. 

*Encomienda  is  the  Spanish  name  for  the  concession,  granted  by  the  crown 
during  the  Spanish  Colonial  period,  of  a  certain  number  of  native  Indians,  to  a 
Spanish  conqueror  for  purposes  of  service.  The  Encomendero  was  the  recipient 
of  such  a   concession   from   the  crown. 

'Mita.  Spanish  term  for  the  distribution  by  lot  of  the  native  Indians  for  pur- 
poses of  public  work. 

"Yanaconazc/o.  Spanish  term  for  that  peculiar  kind  of  land  tenantship  by  which 
the  tenant  has  no  title  to  the  land,  but  receives  a  proportion  of  the  product  of  his 
labors  upon  the  land. 

(708) 


The   Social   Evolution    of   the   Argentine   Republic         131 

of  a  peaceful  and  civilized  character  to  those  of  an  untamable  and 
warlike  nature,  and  even  to  ferocious  savages,  the  Spanish  settle- 
ments existed  without  any  common  plan.  They  made  a  republic  with 
the  tribes,  and  they  were  the  beginning  of  a  Creole  type  which  was 
quite  distinct  in  each  locality.  In  the  viceroyship  of  Buenos  Ayres 
the  ethnic  geography  of  the  aborigines  shows  a  kaleidoscopic  variety 
of  races.  In  the  north  and  in  the  regions  which  formerly  had  been 
subject  to  the  rule  of  the  Incas,  the  population — both  servient  and 
dominant  classes — was  peaceful,  attached  to  the  soil,  resigned  and 
passive. 

In  those  regions  lying  between  the  two  great  rivers  the  popula- 
tion was  of  a  gentle  and  peace-loving  nature  and,  therefore,  was 
easily  molded  by  missionary  civilization.  Along  the  slopes  of  the 
Andes  the  people  were  daring,  excitable  and  independent.  The 
south  or  Patagonian  extremity  was  overrun  by  brave  and  uncon- 
querable tribes,  closely  related  to  that  Araucanian  race  which  the 
Spanish  conquest  never  entirely  succeeded  in  subduing.  The  Spanish 
settlements  on  the  other  hand  presented  different  characteristics.  In 
the  north  they  came  from  Lima,  and  were  Biscayan  and  Castillian, 
aristocratic,  very  proud  of  their  ancestry,  holding  aloof ,  enriched  by 
the  mines  of  Potosi  and  the  commerce  of  the  fleet  of  Portobello. 
Southward  were  Andalusians  and  Spanish  common  folk,  little  given 
to  titles  and  conventionalities.  They  were  condemned  to  pursue  the 
smuggler's  trade,  because  the  mother  country,  following  an  economic 
error  of  the  time  and  perhaps  owing  to  deficient  geographic  knowl- 
edge, permitted  them  only  an  overland  commerce,  by  mule  back,  from 
the  Panama  fleet  which  unloaded  its  cargoes  in  Callao.  Hence  in 
the  provinces  of  the  north,  called  High  Peru,  and  in  the  present 
provinces  of  Jujuy  and  Tucuman,  the  Spanish  population  held  up 
Lima  as  their  ideal,  and  exhibited  both  its  vices  and  its  virtues.  Out 
of  it  was  formed  the  aristocratic,  commercial  and  luxurious  city  of 
Salta.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  river  provinces,  the  existence  of 
the  cities  was  precarious  and  fraught  with  the  dangers  of  a  smug- 
gling trade  carried  on  with  the  Portugese  neighbors — the  source  of 
the  centuries-old  controversy  of  Sacramento  colony.  These  settle- 
ments were  not  unacquainted  with  the  fear  of  pirates,  of  daring 
navigators  and  of  roving  slave  dealers,  who  on  their  arrival  at  the 
River  Plate  unloaded  (he  "products  of  their  country."  with  the 
toleration  and  secret  complicity  of  the  government  officials  and  with 

("09) 


132  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

the  connivance  of  the  inhabitants.  These  inhabitants  were  true 
outlaws.  They  scoffed  at  the  administration  and  fiscal  measures  and 
trusted  more  to  their  fists  than  they  feared  being  caught  in  the 
complicated  meshes  of  the  uneconomic  laws. 

x  The  interbreeding  of  these  different  classes  of  population  re- 
sulted in  creole  types,  characteristic  of  each  region.  In  the  central  cities 
of  the  north,  they  were  always  aristocratic  and  devoted  to  learning, 
while  in  the  vast  stretches  of  country  they  lived  the  semi-feudal 
life  of  encomenderos.  The  interbreeding  with  the  Indians  formed 
an  inferior  class  of  half  breed  which  approached  the  type  of  the 
mother  more  than  that  of  the  father  and  which  was  certainly  not  a 
robust  or  handsome  race.  In  the  river  region,  the  population  lived 
on  a  democratic  plane  of  equality  in  the  cities,  while  in  the  rural 
districts  they  became  that  creole  type  known  as  the  gaucho.6  Found 
amidst  a  scattered  population  and  inheriting  the  far  from  sedentary 
habits  of  the  Spanish  mother  race,  the  gaucho  preferred  the  free 
and  roving  existence  of  the  pampas.  He  lived  by  the  herds  of  semi- 
wild  animals,  which  had  multiplied  amazingly  since  Mendoza's 
expedition  had  introduced  the  very  limited  stock,  destined  later  to 
be  converted  into  the  stupendous  riches  of  this  country.  In  the 
central,  more  mountainous  region  also,  the  interbreeding  of  the 
races  produced  very  definite  results  and  the  creole  population  of  the 
rural  districts  acquired  traits  as  though  living  closely  associated  with 
the  ganchos  of  the  pampas.  In  the  south  the  aboriginal  races  re- 
mained pure,  except  for  the  insignificant  mixing  which  came  from 
the  Spanish  captive  women,  victims  of  the  attacks  of  the  Tehuelches 
of  the  north,  from  Santiago  del  Estero  to  the  Bolivian  frontier, 
populations.  Wherever  the  native  population  was  dense  and  attached 
to  the  soil  the  Creoles  living  in  the  country  and  about  the  cities  show 
a  closer  affinity  with  it,  than  with  the  Spanish  blood.  They  adopt 
native  habits  and  conform  to  native  peculiarities,  even  to  the  extent 
of  adopting  the  melancholy  rhythm  of  the  music  and  songs,  those 
unique  tristcs  which  are  heard  even  to-day  in  the  Argentine  provinces 
of  the  north,  from  Santiago  del  Estero  to  the  Bolivian  frontier. 
There  the  creole  laborers  of  the  land  and  the  half  breeds  of  the  dis- 
tricts about  the  cities  tenderly  preserve  the  quichua,  or  native  lan- 
guage of  their  ancestors,  by  intermixing  it  with  the  Spanish.  The 
same  close  affinity  with  the  native  element  is  found  in  the  river 

eThe  cowboy  of  th?  Argentine  Pampas. 

(7IO) 


The   Social   Evolution    of   the   Argentine   Republic         133 

provinces,  and  especially  in  Corrientes,  where  in  the  rural  and 
semi-rural  districts  the  dregs  of  the  missionary  population  have  pre- 
served as  their  most  precious  possession  the  guarani  dialect.  But, 
where  the  native  population  was  more  scattered  and  nomadic,  the 
creole  population  became  transformed  and  converted  into  the  gaucho 
or  cowboy  of  the  pampas,  a  very  handsome  half  breed,  full  of  energy, 
of  noble  instincts,  accustomed  to  the  freest  sort  of  life  over  boundless 
plains,  where  each  one  depended  solely  upon  himself  and  recognized 
no  superior.  Here  we  have  the  explanation  of  the  great  hold  which 
this  type  (gaucho)  has  upon  the  imagination.*' 

In  spite  of  these  differences,   however,  the  colonial  life  was 
stamped  with  a  certain  uniformity  which  served  as  a  background 
for  these  local  peculiarities.    Spanish- American  society  was  zealously 
preserved  from  contact  with  other  European  nations.     Only  inhab- 
itants of  Spain  were  free  to  go  and  come,  so  that  this  triple  char- 
acteristic— that  they  were  Spanish,  monarchical  and  orthodox  Cath- 
olic— was  the  salient  feature  common  to  all  South  America.     The 
person  of  the  monarch  and  the  supreme  authority  of  the  colonial 
office  were  very  distant  and  the  tribunals  of  the  viceroys  and  gov- 
ernors holding  actual  sessions  there  upon  the  territory,  were  the  real 
and  tangible  personifications  of  the  monarchy.     The  Pope  himself 
was  also  very  distant  and  had  given  over  the  superintendence  of 
ecclesiastical  affairs  to  the  crown,  which  had  in  turn  confided  it  to 
the   respective   viceroys.     The  bishops  and  religious  orders  were, 
strictly  speaking,  the  visible  representatives  of  religion.    In  this  way 
throne  and  altar  came  in  touch  with  the  colonial  populations,  who 
took  heated  sides  in  the   formidable  conflicts  which  used  to  arise 
between  the  representatives  of  each.     But  they  retained  respect  for 
them ;  they  recognized  their  high  merits  and  prerogatives  and  obeyed 
them  as  representing  that  which  could  neither  be  questioned  nor 
altered.     Public  officials  of  all  grades  were  drafted  from  Spain  and 
remained  for  definite  periods.    The  laws  forbade  them  to  mix  with 
the  populations  and  they  kept  themselves  aloof,  with  the  ostensible 
purpose  of  assuring  their  complete  impartiality.     Put  the  result  was 
that  they  tried  to  take  advantage  of  their  period  in  office  to  swell  their 
personal  fortunes,  without  allowing  themselves  to  be  deterred  by 
any  scruples  or  drawing  rein  to  their  appetites.     The  priests  even, 
both   secular  and  those   regularly  ordained,  allowed   themselves  to 

(7") 


134  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

be  carried  away  by  that  spirit  of  self-seeking  which  led  them  to 
look  upon  America  as  a  mine  to  be  exploited. 

Doubtless  there  were  zealous  officials  both  civil  and  religious 
who  performed  the  best  type  of  service.  The  Spaniards  were  estab- 
lished amidst  a  native  population,  who  devoted  themselves  to  com- 
merce or  to  mining  in  the  north,  and  to  the  raising  of  cattle  and 
lesser  trades  in  the  river  and  central  districts,  and  they  always  looked 
upon  their  residence  in  this  part  of  American  territory  as  a  tempo- 
rary sojourn,  during  which  to  acquire  riches.  The  Creoles,  of  every 
class,  both  of  the  city  and  of  the  country,  perhaps  because  they 
seemed  to  be  looked  down  upon  by  the  Spaniards,  were  uncon- 
sciously trying  to  enlarge  their  hold  upon  affairs  of  all  kinds.  They 
felt  themselves,  as  it  were,  rooted  to  the  soil,  and  far  from  proceed- 
ing only  from  selfish  motives  of  money  making,  they  took  an  interest 
in  local  affairs,  which,  for  them,  were  of  greater  importance  than 
those  of  a  crown,  only  vaguely  known  to  them  by  report.  The  city 
Creoles,  thanks  to  an  advanced  communal  spirit,  aroused  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  cabildos  or  Spanish  town  council,  were  diligently 
at  work  on  their  own  municipal  problems.  They  thus  became  accus- 
tomed to  limit  their  horizon  to  the  limits  of  their  own  city  and  of 
the  immediately  surrounding  country  district,  because  communication 
between  the  cities  was  slow,  difficult  and  dangerous,  a  condition 
which  resulted  in  their  virtual  isolation  from  each  other.  The  city 
might  almost  be  regarded  as  the  center  of  their  universe.  From 
the  rest  of  the  world  news  arrived  months  and  years  later,  tempered 
or  misrepresented.  It  awakened  not  the  faintest  echo.  It  might  as 
well  have  been  the  news  of  far  away  ages  and  peoples. 

The  mass  of  the  natives,  with  whose  women  the  military  and 
civil  population  cohabited,  since  relatively  few  Spanish  women  came 
to  America,  took  no  interest  whatsoever  in  the  affairs  of  a  monarchy 
which  was  not  that  of  their  ancestors  but  of  a  race  different  from 
themselves.  They  showed,  rather,  such  a  passive  indifference  that 
each  community  seemed  a  world  unto  itself,  occupied  and  pre-occu- 
pied  only  with  its  own  matters.  The  religious  and  civil  officials,  in 
their  turn,  were  soon  contaminated  by  this  environment.  They 
gave  to  local  affairs  so  excessive  an  importance  that  it  also  appeared 
to  their  eyes  as  if  the  boundary  of  the  Indian  city  was  the  ultima 
Thule  of  civilization.  In  the  northern  provinces,  which  had  reached 
the  final  stage  of  perfection  under  the  old  Inca  conquest,  the  native 

(712) 


The  Social  Evolution  of  the  Argentine  Republic  135 

population  preserved  and  protected  its  pre-Columbian  traditions  by 
the  use  of  their  dialect,  the  quichua  tongue.  The  regime  of  the 
encomienda,  the  mitas  and  the  yanaconazgo  had  produced  only  a  for- 
mal subjection  of  the  natives.  In  the  depths  of  their  souls  the  natives 
preserved  and  fostered  traditions  of  bygone  centuries.  In  this  way 
the  Creoles,  the  product  of  interbreeding,  were  recast  into  the  dense 
mass  of  the  Indian  population  and  became  more  conversant 
with  American  traditions  than  Spanish. 

Amongst  the  missionary  converts,  the  Jesuits  had  erected  cities 
that  nourished  artificially  under  their  care.  They  were  inhabited 
only  by  Indian  races,  and  the  Jesuits  zealously  guarded  them 
from  contact  with  the  Spaniards  whom  they  removed  far  from 
their  admirable  theocratic  empire  as  though  they  were  the 
very  incarnation  of  evil.  An  unreal  civilization  was  thus 
created,  governed  patriarchally  by  the  priests  and  without  any 
vitality  of  its  own.  Hence,  the  expulsion  of  the  priests  by  the 
coup  d'  ctat  of  Charles  III  brought  about  the  destruction  of  these 
populations,  which  had  realized  during  the  century  of  their  existence, 
the  ideal  of  the  most  exacting  of  Utopian  civilization.  But  the  results 
were  not  such  as  had  been  desired.  These  Indians,  on  being  dis- 
tributed over  the  colonies,  did  not  coalesce  with  the  rest  of  the  inhab- 
itants, but  returned  to  the  depths  of  barbarism  or,  as  in  the  present 
province  of  Corrientes,  constituted  the  mass  of  the  population,  an 
element  indifferent  to  national  interests  just  as  the  old  missionaries 
had  been  to  those  of  the  crown  and  sensible  only  to  the  recollection 
of  their  ancient  and  traditional  life,  that  is  to  say,  to  their  own 
local  affairs. 

In  the  central  and  river  provinces,  the  marvelous  increase  of 
animals  capable  of  domestication  but  still  in  a  wild  state  brought 
about  a  profound  transformation.  The  native  tribes,  sparser  than 
in  the  north,  without  losing  any  of  their  savage  customs,  soon  pos- 
sessed themselves  of  the  horse  and  overran  the  boundless  pampas. 
The  Creoles  of  the  country  districts  and  the  gauchos  in  their  turn 
vied  for  the  possession  of  the  horse.  No  longer  abie  to  remold  their 
life  to  that  of  the  savage  tribes,  they  checked  their  bold  and  fero- 
cious habits  and  became  keen  and  cautious,  forming  a  race  of  special 
type,  midway  between  the  Indian  and  the  Spaniard.  They  were 
extreme  individualists,  for  in  the  immense  pampas,  authority,  both 
civil   and   religious  could   obtain   but   a   weak   hold.      The   ^aucho 

(713) 


136  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

made  so  complete  a  face-about  from  his  former  self  as  to  devote  his 
life  solely  to  cattle  raising.  He  evolved  a  special  fitness  or  adapta- 
bility to  his  new  life  and  created  the  most  curious  types,  from  the 
zumbon  compadrito  with  his  peculiar  cloak  and  chiripa,  who 
flashed  his  sarcastic  jests  with  such  grace  and  elegance,  to  the  poet 
troubador  and  famous  animal  tracker  who  was  but  little  less  keen 
than  the  hound  in  scenting  and  following  the  trail  of  man  or  beast. 
As  the  gauchos  came  in  contact  with  not  a  few  of  the  city  popu- 
lation, upon  whom  they  were  dependent  for  obtaining  the  things  they 
needed  in  exchange  for  pelts  and  the  products  of  the  country,  they 
formed  with  such  of  the  latter  as  came  most  closely  in  touch  with 
them,  a  community  of  ideas  and  aims.  Thus  by  busying  themselves 
only  with  their  own  special  lives,  they  became  independent  and 
without  attachment  for  any  but  their  respective  municipal  centers. 
Each  region  possessed  its  local  feature,  each  was  separated  from  the 
rest  and  all  were  but  nominally  linked  and  united  with  their  remote 
and  common  monarch. 

In  the  River  Plate  region,  leaving  aside  the  factor  of  geo- 
graphic interest,  to  which  I  have  just  made  allusion,  the  racial 
history  was  limited  to  the  Spanish  population  and  its  creole  inter- 
breeding with  the  native  races,  because  the  negro  population  had 
no  importance  whatsoever,  in  this  part  of  America.  The  quantity 
of  negro  slaves  introduced  by  the  "dealers"  was  reduced  to  a  mini- 
mum, and  even  these,  upon  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  of  indepen- 
dence, were  killed  off,  for  now  that  their  masters  were  freeing  them, 
they  formed  the  great  body  of  the  troops.  In  this  way  they  helped 
the  American  cause.  The  mulattoes,  consequently,  were  also  reduced 
in  number.  This  process  was  carried  to  such  a  point  that  the  singular 
scarcity  of  pure  negroes  or  even  of  mulattoes  was  a  real  character- 
istic of  this  country. 

Foreign  influence  could  only  penetrate  by  way  of  the  Atlantic, 
and  even  then  only  covertly,  unless  it  were  by  crossing  the 
rocky  barrier  of  the  Andes.  The  Portuguese  influence  was  limited 
to  the  profitable  commercial  relations  with  the  smugglers.  That 
of  other  nations  only  made  itself  felt  through  the  occasional  visits 
of  ships  forced  to  take  shelter  in  the  La  Plata  from  time  to  time, 
or  dropping  anchor  upon  various  pretexts,  but  always  with  the 
intention  of  smuggling.  This  was  an  open  secret  to  the  then  few 
inhabitants  of  Buenos  Ayres,  the  possibilities  of  which  as  a  port, 

(714) 


The  Social  Evolution  of  the  Argentine  Republic  137 

although  gainsayed  by  the  crown,  had  been  ordained  by  nature. 
When,  during  the  last  days  of  colonial  domination,  commerce  was 
permitted  to  the  port  of  Buenos  Ayres,  there  was  no  longer  time  for 
foreign  influence  to  penetrate  to  the  heart  of  the  country.  The 
English  invasions  left  a  greater  residue  of  influence  through  the 
distribution  of  the  English  prisoners,  who  in  great  part  established 
homes  in  the  midland  regions  to  which  they  were  sent.  There,  in 
the  midst  of  the  Spanish  families,  with  whom  they  were  left,  they 
disseminated  ideas  of  liberty  and  standards  of  independence,  un- 
known among  the  rest  of  the  population,  the  best  classes  of  which 
in  those  days  of  unrest,  were  a  turbulent  and  irrepressible  element. 
The  revolution  of  May,  1810,  wrought  a  fundamental  change 
in  the  social  situation.  Distinguished  officers  of  the  Napoleonic  wars 
came  to  the  country  to  offer  their  military  services.  English  mer- 
chants, attracted  by  the  reports  of  the  English  invasions  of  the 
Argentine  Republic  in  1806  and  1807,  hurried  over  in  increasing 
numbers.  Soon  they  were  influencing  the  society  of  Buenos  Ayres 
which  adopted  London  fashions,  many  of  its  customs,  and  became 
accustomed  to  the  English  character.  Foreign  commerce  was  con- 
centrated in  the  hands  of  the  English  and  many  of  these  merchants 
finally  married  in  the  country.  During  the  colonial  epoch  only 
books  expurgated  by  the  Inquisition  had  been  admitted,  but  now 
the  revolutionary  movement  unmuzzled  these  mysteries  and  flung 
wide  the  doors  through  which  penetrated  a  flood  of  French  and 
English  works.  The  doctrines  of  the  French  revolution  were  at 
that  time  the  passion  of  the  majority  of  our  public  men,  and  its 
influence,  even  its  Jacobin  and  terrorist  phases,  is  traceable  from 
the  first  instant.  This  is  revealed  in  the  "plan  of  government"  of 
Moreno.  On  the  other  hand,  the  constitutional  doctrines  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons  were  embraced  only  by  the  few.  Dorrego  went  to  the 
United  States  and  there  absorbed  them.  During  the  first  decade 
after  the  revolution,  the  educational  system  scarcely  advanced  at  all 
but  followed  closely  to  the  traditional  path  of  teaching  taught  by 
the  University  of  Codoba.  The  University  of  Buenos  Ayres  was 
founded  in  the  second  decade,  and  made  an  effort  to  reform  public 
education.  But  the  war  of  independence  was  not  yet  over  and  the 
internal  situation  of  the  country  at  the  end  of  the  anarchical  disso- 
lution which  took  place  in  1820,  was  such  that  a  multitude  of  affairs 

(715) 


138  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

demanded  attention,  and  as  yet  it  was  hardly  possible,  outside  of 
the  large  cities,  to  turn  to  such  questions  of  reform. 

The  winning  of  independence  was  the  cause  of  the  sad  dismem- 
berment of  the  viceroyship  of  the  River  Plate  and  the  statesmen 
of  the  period  could  not  have  prevented  it.  From  what  was  once  a 
single  historic  province  there  have  gradually  been  detached  the 
province  of  High  Peru,  to-day  the  Republic  of  Bolivia ;  the  province 
of  Paraguay,  to-day  the  Republic  of  the  same  name;  the  eastern 
missions  which  now  constitute  the  present  Brazilian  provinces  of 
Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  Santa  Catalina  and  Sao  Paulo.  The  Banda 
Oriental  has  since  become  the  Republic  of  Uruguay;  the  Falkland 
Islands  were  snatched  by  England ;  the  territory  about  the  Straits 
of  Magellan  was  ceded  later  to  Chile,  under  color  of  regulating  the 
boundary  line.  The  Argentine  Republic,  during  the  first  century 
of  its  existence  as  an  independent  nation,  far  from  acquiring  a 
single  square  mile  of  territory,  has  continued  to  lose  territory  at 
every  point  of  the  compass.  Her  international  policy,  from  that 
point  of  view,  has  been  lamentable  and  the  memory  of  it  is  still  a 
bitter  lesson. 

Within  the  enormous  territorial  expanse  which  now  constitutes 
the  Argentine  Republic  political  integration  was  effected  slowly. 
The  different  populations  settled  at  intervals  along  the  routes  which 
connected  Buenos  Ayres  with  Lima  on  the  one  side,  with  the  Andes 
on  another  and  with  Asuncion  on  still  another.  Each  settlement 
was  an  oasis  of  Spanish  population  set  in  the  midst  of  a  savage  coun- 
try. In  order  to  establish  something  approaching  unity  within  each 
section,  the  people  organized  themselves  ofter  the  pattern  of  the 
urban  centers  of  Spain  with  their  Cabildo  or  town  council  as  the 
communal  authority,  which  controlled  and  regulated  the  extremes 
of  opinion  and  conditions  and  brought  the  whole  municipal  life  to 
a  focus.  Each  settlement  lived  a  life  apart,  separated  from  the 
others.  In  fact  they  were  cast  in  the  mold  of  the  ancient  Spanish 
village  society,  and  the  central  authority  only  made  itself  felt  at 
infrequent  intervals. 

The  inhabitants  of  each  village  thus  developed  an  aptitude 
for  municipal  life  and  for  self-government,  and  a  concentration 
upon  local  interests  which  became  the  basis  of  their  political 
development.  They  fostered  a  local  character  which  was  the 
very  foundation  and  essence  of  their  later  federal  tendency.       To 

(716) 


The  Social  Evolution  of  the  Argentine  Republic  139 

the  interests  and  pretensions  of  the  crown  as  formulated  by  the 
"Council  of  the  Indies,"  they  preferred  the  authority  of  the  vice- 
roy and  of  the  intendants,  but  their  main  preference  was  the  munici- 
pality itself,  whose  frank  and  loyal  mouthpiece  was  the  traditional 
Cabildo.  For  this  reason,  when  the  movement  for  independence 
commenced,  each  village  and  each  city  was  led  by  its  own  Cabildo, 
and  it  was  the  Cabildo  which  gave  vigor  and  form  to  the  revolution. 
Around  the  Cabildo  the  inhabitants  of  the  vicinity  grouped  them- 
selves in  the  different  organic  or  anarchic  revolts  which  followed. 
It  was  for  this  reason,  too,  since  the  present  republic  possessed 
no  basis  of  political  division,  that  each  one  of  the  cities  formed  a 
nucleus  in  its  respective  province  of  the  same  name,  and  that  the 
whole  territory  was  subdivided  according  to  the  radius  of  authority 
exercised  by  the  principal  cities  of  colonial  times,  without  any 
account  being  taken  of  economic  autonomy  or  of  demography. 

Federal  sentiment  made  its  appearance  profoundly  rooted  in  tra- 
dition and  blood,  and  the  tendency  towards  centralization  only  eman- 
ated from  certain  groups  of  dreamers  at  the  metropolis  who  with 
their  eyes  closed  to  the  past  believed  along  with  such  deluded  men 
as  Rivadavia  that,  by  destroying  the  traditional  Cabildo,  they  would 
wipe  the  state  clean  of  such  precedents,  just  as  the  Jacobins  of  the 
French  Revolution  did  with  the  institutions  of  the  ancient  regime. 
Argentine  society  issued  from  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies already  shaped  toward  local  self-government  and  local 
loyalty.  It  already  appeared  a  federation  in  fact  which  was  easily 
transformed  into  a  federation  in  law,  because  the  federal  idea  was 
at  bottom  the  very  heart  and  soul  of  things. 

The  development  of  our  colonization  also  indicated  that  of 
our  civilization.  As  we  approach  the  north,  the  brilliant  center  of 
civilization  of  Lima  society  becomes  more  aristocratic,  infatuated 
with  its  learning,  luxurious  and  fastidious.  The  youth  of  the  Plate 
Valley  were  attracted  to  the  University  of  Chuquisaca,  where, 
amidst  its  cloisters,  they  acquired  a  grave  and  disputacious  manner. 
Later  the  University  of  Cordoba,  like  a  pale  reflection  of  the  former, 
drew  upon  a  part  of  these  youths  and,  if  they  left  its  lecture  balls 
also  practiced  in  the  art  of  sophistry,  they  did  not  imbibe  in  return 
that  atmosphere  of  aristocratic  aloofness,  pomp  and  presumption. 
Buenos  Ayres  and  the  river  country  were  withoul  a  university  and 
without  an  aristocracy.    At  the  periodic  auctions  of  titles  of  nobility, 

(7'7) 


140  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

the  receipts  of  which  were  added  to  the  colonial  contributions  and 
were  intended  to  meet  a  certain  deficit  in  the  Spanish  treasury,  not  a 
purchaser  appeared  and  there  was  not  a  single  herder  of  the 
pampas  nor  a  single  rich  smuggler  who  would  bid.  The  titles 
which  were  thus  put  up  to  sale  remained  unpurchased,  for  the  peo- 
ple held  them  in  no  esteem. 

With  no  resources  other  than  its  commerce  and  industry  which 
were  both  of  a  contraband  nature,  Buenos  Ayres  developed  more 
rapidly  than  other  cities  and  with  a  greater  freedom  from  "red  tape" 
and  formalism,  in  spite  of  its  being  the  seat  of  the  general  govern- 
ment, with  its  Spanish  officials,  its  civil,  military  and  religious 
authorities  and  an  administrative  machinery  identical  with  that  of  the 
other  capitals  of  the  viceroyship.  For  here  there  was  not  the  same 
atmosphere,  the  life  was  simple  and  democratic,  the  officials  had  no 
stage  from  which  to  display  their  importance,  and  within  the  narrow 
walls  of  the  modest  home  of  the  government,  the  few  inhabitants  of 
this  metropolis  used  to  mingle  in  its  marshy,  unpaved  streets,  or  in 
their  unpretentious  and  simple  adobe  houses.  They  treated  each 
other  with  a  certain  equality,  which  was  due  precisely  to  those  con- 
ditions of  intense  individualism  developed  of  necessity  in  a  cattle 
raising  community. 

In  the  northern  and  central  districts  society  was  cast  in  the 
Peruvian  mold,  a  reproduction  of  Spanish  civilization,  aristocrats 
adopting  primogeniture  and,  in  modified  form,  the  feudal  regime  of 
the  encomenderos.  In  the  river  and  mountain  region,  the  urban  was 
a  reflection  of  the  rural  population,  independent,  haughty,  brave, 
accustomed  to  making  forays  upon  horseback  over  the  endless 
pampas,  trusting  to  its  own  decision  and  in  the  end  to  the  knife, 
which  was  a  symbol  of  the  worship  of  personal  courage,  inherited 
from  Spanish  ancestors  who  had  developed  it  during  the  centuries 
of  the  struggle  against  the  Moors.  In  the  river  district  the  com- 
merce, which  in  the  main  was  carried  on  illegally  by  doggedly  per- 
severing merchants  who  plied  their  trade  fearlessly  with  pirates  and 
foreign  smugglers,  caused  a  certain  spirit  of  self-confidence  to  grow. 
This  spirit  made  itself  felt  in  the  popular  movement  of  the  reconquest 
of  1806,  and  in  the  impulse  of  the  revolution  of  May,  1810. 

From  Buenos  Ayres  started  the  movement  for  independence, 
and  the  Cabildos  of  the  interior  cities  fell  in  with  the  move- 
ment with  more  or  less  alacrity.     Hence  the  further  inland  these 

(7i8) 


The   Social   Evolution   of   the   Argentine  Republic         141 

cities  were,  the  less  enthusiastic.  The  Paraguayan  region  iso- 
lated itself  and  followed  the  conservative  policy  of  the  Cabildo  of 
Asuncion.  The  province  of  High  Peru,  in  spite  of  its  efforts,  was 
the  last  to  revolt  and  never  followed  with  any  ardor  the  movement 
initiated  by  the  metropolis.  Indeed,  the  revolution  of  May,  which 
had  spread  to  the  banks  of  the  Paraguay  river  and  over  the  plateau 
of  Bolivia,  might  not,  perhaps,  have  succeeded  in  so  closely  cement- 
ing, in  spite  of  the  righteousness  of  its  cause,  the  independence  pro- 
claimed in  Tucuman  in  1816,  had  not  the  inspiration  of  San  Martin 
added  that  powerful  impulse  which  flung  armies  across  the  Andes, 
liberated  Chile  from  Spanish  dominion  and  brought  independence  to 
Peru.  He  might  have  pursued  this  glorious  course  toward  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  whole  continent,  if  the  colossal  egotism  of  Bolivar 
in  that  tragic  conference  of  Guayaquil  had  not  placed  our  national 
hero  in  the  dilemma  of  either  eliminating  himself  and  leaving  his 
selfish  rival  to  wear  the  laurels  planted  and  nurtured  by  Argentine 
blood  or  of  sacrificing  the  fruits  of  the  campaign  for  independence, 
by  not  being  able  to  obtain  from  him  the  military  assistance  he  was 
in  need  of.  He  placed  his  country  before  his  own  glory  and  yielded 
the  field  to  one  to  whom  personal  renown  was  preferable  to  all  else. 
For  the  social  evolution  of  Argentine  the  sacrifice  of  San  Martin 
was  of  incalculable  importance.  Upon  eliminating  himself,  he  left 
to  his  rival  the  army  which  he  had  himself  led  until  then  and  this 
country  was  deprived  of  its  one  organizing  force.  Disintegrating 
tendencies  manifested  themselves  without  counter-check.  In  the 
second  decade  of  the  century,  various  little  republics  were  defiantly 
established  in  the  interior.  They  were  constructed  upon  the  plan  of 
the  old  settlements  which  had  risen  to  something  greater.  They  were 
governed  by  Cabildos,  and  these  in  turn  obeyed  the  local  leader,  who 
was  raised  to  dictatorship  over  the  districts.  Each  province  was 
sufficient  unto  itself.  It  barely  communicated  with  the  others  and 
retrograded  towards  barbarism  without  regularly  organized  govern- 
ment or  other  will  than  that  of  its  respective  tyrant  and  the  free- 
lances  who  were  his  immediate  followers.  Schools  closed;  families 
took  refuge  within  the  walls  of  their  dwellings;  terror  pervaded; 
life  was  everywhere  insecure;  those  who  could,  emigrated,  leaving 
behind  them  on  the  land  the  sick,  the  women  and  the  children.  Men 
were  bedfellows  in  misery;  there  was  no  industry,  no  commerce; 
sin  flourished  and  virtue  was  trampled  under  foot.     These  thirty 

(719) 


142  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

years  of  bloody  and  merciless  civil  strife  made  prominent  the  idea  of 
the  rule  of  force.  People  were  taken  from  peaceful  work,  efficient 
teaching  languished,  every  social  bond  was  weakened  and  in  the  end 
a  society  evolved  in  which  not  education,  ancestry  or  fortune  exer- 
cised the  least  influence,  but  audacity,  the  impulse  of  the  local  leader, 
the  mob  instincts  of  the  city  population  and  of  the  rural  gaucho. 
The  .local  leaders  and  their  followers  alone  wielded  any  real  power. 
They  dominated  without  possibility  of  counter-check  and  an  entire 
generation  tolerated  this  condition  during  that  terrible  period. 

The  local  leadership,  like  the  legendary  tyranny  of  ancient  Rome, 
demolished  everything  which  tried  to  rise  above  the  obedient,  pas- 
sive, resigned  and  common  level.  It  brutally  choked  it  or  forced  it 
to  emigrate,  and  Argentine  society  had  to  develop  in  these  anaemic 
surroundings.  There  was  no  possibility  of  foreign  immigration,  or 
of  establishing  industry  and  commerce. 

The  idea  of  nationality  was  observed  by  party  passion  and  the 
factions  were  ready  to  launch  out  upon  some  fight  upon  the  slightest 
pretext.  Social  classes  were  divided  into  irreconcilable  parties,  the 
reds  or  federalists,  and  the  blues  or  centralists,  those  who  believed  in 
the  local  leader,  and  those  who  detested  him.  The  former  were 
called  federalists,  because  they  believed  that  each  locality  ought  to 
adopt  the  kind  of  government  which  best  suited  it ;  the  latter  were 
called  the  centralists,  because  in  their  weakness  they  leaned  upon  the 
influence  of  the  national  government  in  order  to  give  to  the  whole 
country  a  common  unified  administration  of  which  the  local  govern- 
ment would  be  the  agent. 

Rosas  met  this  situation  and  put  an  end  to  it.  After  the  dis- 
memberment of  the  ephemeral  republic  of  1825,  and  the  national 
convention,  and  following  upon  the  Brazilian  war,  the  centralist 
party,  deceived  in  its  principles  and  in  its  men,  closed  its  doors  to 
counsel  and  committed  the  error  of  executing  Dorrego  at  Navarro. 
The  mass  of  the  rural  population  resisted  the  straight  jacket  pro- 
posed by  the  doctrinaires  of  the  centralist  party  and  in  this  they 
showed  themselves  unrelenting.  Then  Rosas  came  into  power  in 
the  government  of  Buenos  Ayres  and  also  secured  control  of  the 
situation  in  the  provinces.  He  succeeded  in  bringing  about  the 
organization  of  each  province  with  a  view  to  forming  the  Argentine 
Confederation.  He  was  entrusted  by  the  federation  with  the  man- 
agement of   foreign   relations.     He  left  the  interior  provinces  to 

(720) 


The   Social   Evolution    of   the   Argentine  Republic         143 

organize  themselves  after  the  pattern  of  the  government  of  Buenos 
Ayres.  Doubtless,  during  the  long  quarter  of  a  century  while  he  was 
dictator,  real  security  and  peace  were  never  enjoyed,  for  the  central- 
ist party  was  ambitious,  arrogant  and  factious,  plotting  within  it- 
self, and  when  it  was  not  exciting  to  rebellion,  or  leading  an  invasion 
it  was  provoking  foreign  intervention.  Finally  the  terrible  and  mer- 
ciless war  between  the  centralists  and  the  federalists  developed  a 
state  of  terror  which  culminated  in  the  excesses  of  the  year  1840. 
The  dictator  treated  his  adversaries  without  mercy  and  they  in  their 
turn  had  none  for  him.  To  be  strictly  truthful,  neither  party  can 
be  absolved  from  wicked  and  culpable  action.  Nor  can  I  shut  my 
eyes  to  the  fact  that  the  great  power  bred  pride,  and  that  pride  bred 
hatred  of  the  subject  class.  But  this  prolonged  dictatorship  saved 
the  country  from  the  anarchy  of  the  petty  republics  of  1820,  it 
solidified  the  country  into  a  sovereign  entity  and  it  gave  to  the  dif- 
ferent parts  the  cohesion  of  a  nation  capable  of  victoriously  resist- 
ing the  French  and  Anglo-French  interventions.  This  much  is  owed 
definitely  to  the  centralist  party,  who  in  this  way  solved  the  difficulty 
traditional  to  our  national  organization  and  so  guided  along  the  right 
road  the  severest  crisis  of  Argentine  history,  not  only  from  a  politi- 
cal but  also  from  a  sociological  point  of  view.  The  chasm  that  sepa- 
rated the  social  classes  of  the  capital  city  from  those  of  the  provincial 
districts  was  bridged ;  the  prejudices  of  blood,  of  caste  and  fortune 
were  destroyed  and  there  was  established  complete  equality,  where 
every  man  was  the  heir  of  his  own  labor  and  depended  only  upon 
his  own  hands. 

After  the  battle  of  Caseros,  in  1852,  the  government  which 
had  so  used  and  abused  oppression  and  patronage  fell,  leaving 
the  country,  however,  in  such  a  condition  of  stability  and  internal 
organization  that  the  different  provinces  grouped  themselves  logically 
under  the  Convention  of  San  Nicolas.  The  Argentine  Federation 
was  maintained  and  Urquiza  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  govern- 
ment. Despite  the  local  character  of  the  revolution  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
on  the  eleventh  of  Sept  ember  the  country  at  large  adopted  the  funda- 
mental constitution  of  [853,  at  the  Congress  of  Santa  Fe.  The  gov- 
ernment of  the  recalcitrant  province  of  Parana  realized  but  slowly 
the  new  organization,  with  which  it  finally  incorporated  itself,  while 
the  nation  continued  developing  in  the  path  established  by  its  con- 
stitution. Without  losing  sight,  therefore,  of  the  bitter  lessons  of  this 

(721) 


144  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

phase  of  our  evolution,  it  is  but  fair  to  show  an  appreciation  of  its 
benefits. 

The  characteristic  of  this  intermediate  epoch  is  the  very  slight 
introduction  of  the  foreign  element.  To-day  this  element  is  scat- 
tered over  the  land,  but  at  that  time  such  as  were  firmly  rooted  in 
the  country,  principally  in  Buenos  Ayres,  were  very  few.  Of 
these  the  English  formed  the  greater  part,  for  the  infusion  of  Ger- 
man blood,  which  resulted  from  the  distribution  of  prisoners  taken 
from  the  German  regiments  at  Ituzaingo,  though  they  included  some 
estimable  families  constituted  a  very  subordinate  factor.  English 
commerce  was  always  respected  and  in  spite  of  the  bitterness  pro- 
duced by  the  naval  interventions,  it  was  left  to  develop  peacefully. 
But  as  it  did  not  increase  in  volume  and  was  never  reinforced  by 
that  of  other  nations,  it  did  not  become  great.  The  path  of  social 
evolution  was  in  the  direction  of  the  commingling  of  the  city  and 
rural  population,  and  of  the  participation  of  the  gauchos  in  public 
life,  either  by  forming  a  large  and  worthy  element  in  the  army  or 
by  becoming  the  active  nucleus  of  the  popular  civic  movements. 
The  democratization  of  the  country  was  complete,  for  in 
general,  the  upper  classes  of  society  in  the  cities  affiliated 
themselves  with  the  centralist  party,  while  the  populace  supported  the 
federal  party.  Hence  the  bloody  triumph  of  the  latter  brought  about 
its  complete  predominance  and  from  this  period  the  social  and 
political  problems  remained  more  enduring  in  nature,  while 
differences  of  blood  and  tradition  were  put  aside. 

Since  the  constitution  of  1853,  the  social  evolution  of  Argentine 
has  been  guided  and  carried  forward  by  two  factors,  immigration 
and  foreign  capital.  Under  their  influence,  the  characteristics  of  the 
prior  period  were  gradually  modified  to  a  certain  extent.  The 
administration  of  Mitre  struggled  against  the  difficulties  of  inade- 
quate means  of  communication  between  the  distant  cities  and  against 
traditional  custom  of  guerilla  warfare.  Force  was  employed  in 
order  to  remain  master  of  the  field  and  to  break  up  the  resistance 
which  the  men  of  the  interior  set  up  against  the  prominence  of 
those  of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  a  cruel  war  against  Paraguay  was 
undertaken.  The  ability  and  consistency  of  this  Argentine  statesman 
was  great. 

When  the  passions  of  his  contemporaries  had  been  assuaged,  he 
became  the  "grand  old  man"  of  the  nation,  growing  in  stature  as 

(722) 


The   Social   Evolution    of   the   Argentine  Republic         145 

posterity  forms  its  judgment  on  his  policy.  That  administration, 
like  the  following  one  of  Sarmiento,  had  to  cope  with  two 
factors,  the  great  uninhabited  tracts  of  land  and  the  survival  of 
ancient  custom.  On  the  one  hand  the  different  Argentine  regions 
lived  in  isolation  from  one  another,  communication  between  them 
being  difficult;  on  the  other  hand  there  still  survived  the  custom  of 
local  chieftainship  and  of  the  constant  and  armed  movements  of 
different  political  factions,  who  would  set  out  upon  guerilla  forays  on 
any  pretext  whatsoever,  raising  their  banners  on  high  as  though  their 
behavior  was  patriotic  and  praiseworthy,  whereas  it  was  but  the 
vicious  habit  of  a  barbaric  and  backward  age. 

The  administration  of  Avellaneda  continued  the  task  of 
combating  such  tendencies  by  the  establishment  of  the  telegraph 
which  would  unite  all  these  centers  to  each  other;  by  the  construction 
of  railroads  to  facilitate  communication;  and  by  the  encouragement 
of  European  immigration  for  purposes  of  settlement  and  in  order  to 
mix  other  races  with  that  of  Argentine  and  so  modify  its  political 
idiosyncracies  by  more  conservative  standards  and  interests.  The 
conquest  of  the  Patagonian  wilds,  with  the  final  subjugation  of  the 
warlike  native  tribes  of  the  south,  opened  and  ushered  in  an  era  in 
the  Argentine  evolution.  This  occurred  contemporaneously  with  the 
historic  solution  of  the  problem  of  federalism  versus  centralism, 
which  silenced  forever  the  old  antagonism  between  the  inhabitants  of 
the  metropolis  and  those  of  the  provinces. 

From  1880  till  the  present,  the  work  of  multiplying  the  tele- 
graphs and  railway  routes  has  gone  on,  as  has  also  the  increase  of 
foreign  immigration.  These  have  produced  the  desired  effect  in  the 
social  transformation  of  the  country.  The  telegraph  and  the  rail- 
road have  definitely  killed  the  seditious  germs  of  guerilla  warfare 
and  of  local  chieftainship.  Local  uprisings  are  no  longer  possible. 
The  city  and  rural  populations  have  become  convinced  of  this,  and 
the  popular  mind  is  at  peace  since  the  generation  has  disappeared 
which  saw  the  last  revolts  of  the  ganchos,  and  other  forms  of 
popular  uprising.  Foreign  capital  commenced  and  encouraged  the 
exploitation  of  our  natural  resources.  The  sugar  industry  of  the 
northern  provinces,  the  wine  culture  of  the  Andes  provinces,  even 
the  stock  raising  and  agriculture  of  tl>c  river  districts  have  been  the 
combined  work  of  these  three  progressive  elements.  Immigration 
has  helped  immensely  toward  this  same  end,  but  the  settlement  of 

(723) 


146  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

new  lands  does  not  advance  by  leaps  and  bounds,  but  spreads 
gradually. 

Starting  from  the  port  of  arrival,  the  stream  of  immigration 
continues  to  spread  clinging  closely  to  the  land  and  little  by  little  it 
mixes  with  the  existing  population,  inter-breeds  with  it,  fuses  with 
it,  and  gives  a  great  surging  impulse  to  agriculture,  industry  and 
commerce.  The  social  transformation  of  the  river  provinces  is  due 
to  this  junction  of  the  two  currents  as  a  result  of  which  the  gaucho 
of  the  metropolis  of  Santa  Fe  or  of  Entre  Rios,  who,  formerly 
famous  for  his  bold  and  lawless  tendencies,  has  to-day  been  so  fused 
with  the  different  foreign  elements  that  all  but  the  memory  of  this 
ancient  type  has  disappeared,  and  the  country  is  covered  over  with 
populous  settlements,  laborious,  prosperous  and  progressive.  The 
great  fertility  of  the  soil  has  returned  with  interest  the  foreign 
capital  which  first  watered  it,  and  has  enriched  marvelously  all  who 
have  engaged  in  its  cultivation.  The  development  of  the  national 
recources,  in  turn,  has  given  birth  to  such  conservative  interests  that 
it  is  incomprehensible  to  the  new  generation  that  the  former  genera- 
tion could,  at  the  signal  of  a  semi-barbarous  chief  jump  on  their 
horses  and,  rushing  over  the  fields,  kill,  pillage  and  destroy.  It  is 
true  that  the  transition  has  been  effected  at  the  cost  of  producing 
a  certain  political  indifference  in  the  new  generations,  which  no 
doubt,  will  be  overcome  in  time. 

The  social  evolution  of  the  Argentine  Republic  has  finally 
found  its  true  channel  and  to-day  is  in  full  course  of  development. 
In  proportion  as  the  foreign  immigration  continues  bringing  there- 
with its  happy  complement  of  foreign  capital,  the  country  will 
continue  to  develop  industrially.  The  astonishing  increase  in 
industries,  with  a  total  production  out  of  all  proportion  to  the 
growing  population,  is  only  explained  by  the  use  on  a  large  scale 
of  the  most  advanced  machinery.  But  such  a  metamorphosis  spreads 
from  the  river  districts  toward  the  interior  of  the  country.  It  does 
not  jump  from  one  point  to  another  without  connecting  links 
between  them,  but  always  preserves  a  channel  through  which  a 
relation  is  maintained  between  the  different  zones  already  trans- 
formed or  in  process  of  transformation.  The  first  effect  of  each 
infusion  of  foreign  blood  into  creole  veins  is  to  appease  the  hot 
political  passions  of  other  times,  abolish  the  old  institution  of  the 
local   chieftainship,   even   blot   him    from   memory   and   replace   it 

(724) 


The   Social   Evolution   of   the   Argentine   Republic         147 

by  an  absorption  in  our  growing  material  interests.  These  material 
interests  appear  to  have  conspired  to  bring  about  that  indifference 
towards  the  state,  as  such,  which  makes  men  look  mistakenly  at  a 
political  career  as  a  profession  which  thrives  off  the  real  working 
classes.  For,  our  government  both  municipal,  provincial  and 
national  appears  to  be  the  heritage  of  a  well-defined  minority — the 
politicians — who  devote  themselves  to  politics  just  as  other  social 
classes  devote  themselves  to  agriculture,  stock  raising,  industry, 
commerce,  etc. 

Public  life  with  its  complex  machinery  of  elections  and 
governing  bodies  has  been,  so  to  say,  delivered  into  the  hands  of  a 
small  group  of  men  who  at  present  are  not  productive  of  anything 
new  in  the  general  social  situation  of  former  times;  that  is  to  say, 
these  men  form  a  definite  class,  moved  by  the  influence  of  this  or 
that  personality.  Though  it  has  suppressed  the  bloody  char- 
acteristics of  the  previous  period  it  has  not  relapsed  into  their 
heresies. 

Little  by  little  this  shadow  of  the  old  system  changes  into  that 
of  the  "boss"  of  the  settlement  and  ward.     The  boss  makes  his 
business  that  of  the  mass  of  the  voters,  he  stirs  them  up  from  their 
indifference,  makes  them  go  to  the  polls,  deliberately  falsifies  public 
opinion,   and   so   wins   for  himself   a  political  managership,   which 
gives  him  a  marked  influence  in  the  back  offices  of  officials  and  in 
the  lobbies  of  legislatures.    From  such  methods  there  spring  no  little 
censurable  legislation  of  privilege  and  a  great  loss  of  contentment 
on   the  part  of   the   people.     When   public  spirit   strengthens   and 
shakes  from  itself  the  dust  of  inertia,  and  when  the  laboring  classes 
have  passed  beyond  that  first   stage  of  money  grabbing,   all   the 
inhabitants  of  the  nation  will  commence  to  busy  themselves  about 
the  common  weal.     The  thorn  of  the  "boss"  will  prick  them  and 
they  will  tben  be  able  to  form  into  political  parties  with  unselfish 
programs  and  platforms.    Every  voter  will  cast  his  ballot  to  send  to 
the  legislature  candidates  who  uphold  the  principles  of  his  particular 
platform.     As  yet  the  people  have  not  even  reached  the  gateway  to 
this  goal.    The  past  is  still  seen  in  full  process  of  evolution  and  it  is 
not  easy  to  foresee  the  end. 

This  docs  not  mean  that  the  present  moment  of  transition  is 
valueless.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  of  very  great  importance,  because 
the  social  situation  in  the  Argentine  Republic  is  in  process  of  making. 

(725) 


148  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

The  politicians,  now  that  they  look  upon  themselves  as  called  to 
stand  forth  above  the  heads  of  the  rest  of  the  people,  have  to  be  real 
statesmen.  In  this  historic  period,  such  statesmen,  have  the 
personality  of  the  chauffeur  who  directs  one  of  those  swift  engines 
of  our  century  upon  its  dizzy  course,  the  mechanism  of  which 
is  so  sensitive  to  the  controlling  pressure  of  the  hand  that  it 
can  deftly  avoid  all  accident  or  cause  a  catastrophe  of  fatal  con- 
sequences. There  is  required  in  such  a  man  extraordinary  coolness, 
clearness  of  vision  as  to  responsibility,  perfect  knowledge  of  the 
course  to  be  run,  besides  ceaseless  vigilance,  iron  nerve  when  the 
time  of  trial  arrives  and  a  complete  concentration  upon  the  task. 
The  legitimate  tasks  of  government,  in  this  very  grave  period  of 
Argentine  evolution,  require  a  special  training  on  the  part  of  public 
leaders.  They  must  study  thoroughly  the  problems  of  our  social 
evolution,  and  they  must  form  a  clear  idea  of  the  necessary  solutions. 
Towards  this  they  must  steer  with  undiverted  eye.  The  necessity 
of  further  exploitation  of  our  national  resources,  the  successive 
expansion  of  enterprise  over  zone  after  zone  of  our  territory,  the 
assimilation  of  the  foreign  immigrants  by  the  Creole  population,  the 
slow  formation  of  a  national  spirit  in  the  new  generation,  all  these 
monopolize  for  the  present  the  national  energies  and  prevent  them 
from  turning  to  other  problems.  The  country  is  converted,  as  it 
were,  into  a  giant  boa  constrictor.  It  is  entirely  given  over  to 
the  task  of  converting  its  food  into  nourishment,  of  abstracting  the 
juices  from  the  hard  and  resisting  substances,  of  passing  a  multitude 
of  different  elements  through  its  living  organs  so  that  they  may 
later  form  a  new  tissue,  adapted  to  the  present  and  future  needs  of 
the  country. 

From  this  point  of  view  the  present  moment  in  the  evolution 
of  Argentine  is  of  immense  sociological  interest.  We  are  permitted 
to  be  present  at  the  visible  transmutation  of  a  society,  too  weak  even 
to  direct  itself,  and  absorbed  in  the  fusion  of  different  influences. 
The  direction  of  this  process  has  been  handed  over  without  counter- 
check to  public  men  who  are  obliged  to  dictate  and  put  into  practice 
legislation  and  administrative  rules  of  every  kind,  as  though  they 
enjoyed  absolute  power.  Furthermore,  by  the  very  nature  of  things, 
the  administrative  functions  in  such  periods  have  to  discount  the 
future  and  effect  in  the  present  a  series  of  public  works  or  social 
regulations   which   will   weigh   upon    future   generations    not   only 

(726) 


The   Social   Evolution   of   the   Argentine   Republic         149 

from  the  point  of  view  of  the  general  finances  but  even  from  the 
point  of  view  of  national  character.  The  national  transformation 
of  the  land  with  ports,  canals,  railroads,  telegraphs  and  every 
sort  of  means  of  communication,  indeed,  with  every  kind  of  public 
work,  cannot  be  accomplished  with  present  resources.  A  call  must 
be  made  upon  those  of  the  future,  by  means  of  loans  which  will 
be  a  burden  upon  coming  generations.  If  such  a  governmental 
policy  is  not  accompanied  by  a  skillful  and  prudent  financial  manage- 
ment, the  burdens  of  our  descendants  will  be  considerably  increased. 
They  may  even  be  committed  to  a  policy  that  will  cause  eventual 
bankruptcy  and  an  inevitable  retrogression  in  the  national  develop- 
ment. The  intellectual  metamorphosis  of  the  nation  by  a  proper 
system  of  primary,  secondary  and  higher  education  and  by  special 
schools  of  technical  training,  in  order  to  form  the  national  spirit 
of  the  future  type  of  Argentine  citizen,  is  certainly  our  most  difficult 
governmental  problem,  because  it  is  a  question  of  molding  the 
very  soul  of  the  nation.  To  teach  different  and  contradictory 
systems,  to  do  and  then  undo,  each  day  changing  the  courses  of 
study  to  successively  adopt  antagonistic  standards  and  show  a  real 
lack  of  fixity  in  pedagogic  methods,  is  to  commit  the  greatest  of 
all  crimes,  because  it  is  not  a  crime  against  the  exchequer  of 
posterity  but  against  its  very  soul.  To  accomplish  a  fusion  of  the 
currents  of  foreign  immigration,  to  sort  out  the  best  from  them, 
and  to  direct  the  formation  of  the  new  type  which  is  being  evolved, 
melting  it  in  the  crucible  of  the  school,  of  the  army,  and  of  public 
life,  is  perhaps,  to-day  our  task  of  transcendent  difficulty.  Such  a 
problem  is  greater  than  that  of  directing  the  stream  of  foreign  capital 
which,  while  fructifying  the  national  soil,  clings  to  it  like  the  count- 
less tentacles  of  a  gigantic  octopus  and  absorbs  a  great  part — some- 
times too  great  a  part — of  the  riches  produced  only  to  transmit  them 
through  the  arteries  of  the  Republic,  to  foreign  nations  who  employ 
it  to  their  exclusive  profit. 

Perhaps  no  moment  in  the  history  of  our  nation  requires  a 
greater  combination  of  qualifications  in  its  public  men.  The  student 
may  contemplate  this  most  interesting  transformation,  displayed 
before  his  eyes  like  the  moving  film  of  a  gigantic  cinematograph 
which  permits  him  to  grasp  at  once  the  different  phases  of  the  social 
problem  which  it  presents.  Rarelv  in  the  history  of  humanity  has  it 
been  possible  to  contemplate  a  like  spectacle.     The  United  States 

(7V) 


150  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

presented  it  a  half  century  ago,  to  the  astonished  gaze  of  men  of  that 
day  who  were  but  little  familiar  with  social  problems.  The 
Argentine  Republic  is  repeating  now  the  same  phenomenon,  with 
this  difference  that  it  can  observe  itself  and  be  guided  by  the 
experience  acquired  elsewhere.  Other  countries  of  the  world,  in 
the  future  will,  no  doubt,  in  their  turn  repeat  a  similar  evolution, 
though  perhaps  in  a  different  environment.  But  the  interesting  part 
of  the  present  moment  is  that  the  Argentine  Republic  is  sailing  upon 
the  same  course  in  the  twentieth  century  that  the  United  States  did 
in  the  nineteenth.  Our  evolution  is  proceeding  with  greater  care 
because  it  is  being  worked  out  amid  better  conditions.  We  can  now 
take  advantage  of  the  costly  experience  gained  by  our  brothers  pf 
the  north  and  so  by  avoiding  many  of  their  errors,  seek  to  escape  the 
shoals  upon  which  they  stranded  and  the  mistakes  which  they 
involuntarily  committed,  even  though  we  have  in  our  turn  special 
problems  which  they  did  not  have.  Thus  the  tremendous  politico- 
social  crisis  of  the  North  American  War  of  Secession  will  not  be 
repeated  in  the  southern  hemisphere  and  the  Argentine  social 
evolution  will  not  have  to  solve  the  profound  anthropological 
problem  of  the  rivalry  of  races,  which,  in  the  United  States,  arises 
from  the  white,  black  and  yellow  races,  living  together  side  by  side. 
In  Argentine  there  are  no  ethnic  problems.  The  social 
antagonism  raised  by  an  arrogant  plutocracy  on  the  one  hand 
and  povery  stricken  proletariat  on  the  other,  is  not  presented  as  an 
Argentine  problem,  because  riches  are  still  in  process  of  formation 
there,  and  easily  pass  from  one  hand  to  another.  A  monopoly  of 
riches  cannot  be  prolonged  beyond  a  single  generation  because  with 
the  system  of  compulsory  divison  of  descendants'  estates,  it  soon 
returns  to  the  common  mass  of  the  population.  Social  conditions  in 
our  evolution,  present  distinct  problems  from  those  which  char- 
acterize other  nations  and  demand,  therefore,  a  direct  study  on  the 
ground  and  must  not  be  viewed  through  the  doctrines  developed  in 
other  nations  and  amid  other  conditions.  The  molding  of  the 
national  spirit  by  uniform  and  compulsory  schools  and  the  slow 
adaptation  of  the  mass  of  the  immigrants  to  historical  traditions 
and  to  future  national  aims,  demand  much  time  and  they  are  now 
in  the  full  process  of  being  worked  out.  The  celebration  of  the  Cen- 
tenary of  our  independence  has  made  prominent  the  fact  that  such  an 
evolution  is  much  more  advanced  than  one  would  think.    There  still 

(728) 


The   Social   Evolution   of   the  Argentine  Republic         151 

remains,  nevertheless,  not  a  little  to  be  done  in  this  direction,  though 
the  national  compulsory  school  system  and  the  army  conscription  are 
factors  of  great  importance  which  are  working  for  fusion.  But,  in 
the  country  districts  and  in  those  places  where  the  error  has  been 
committed  of  permitting  the  formation  of  settlements,  homogeneous 
in  race  and  religion,  which  regard  themselves  as  autonomous  off- 
shoots of  their  mother  country,  resisting  the  Argentine  school  or 
any  intermingling  with  the  mass  of  neighboring  population — in  such 
districts,  the  fusion,  though  inevitable,  will  be  necessarily  slower. 

All  these  sociological  problems  might  and  should  have  been 
exhaustively  studied  in  the  history  of  the  United  States  during 
the  nineteenth  century,  a  history  which,  as  I  have  said,  the  Argentine 
Republic  is  repeating  in  the  twentieth.  Foreign  immigration  at 
this  time  has  no  outlet  more  profitable  than  the  River  Plate. 
The  doors  of  North  America  are  gradually  being  closed,  and  the 
other  regions  do  not  yet  present  the  same  advantages  as  those 
offered  by  our  country.  The  same  thing  that  happens  with  the 
excess  of  population  of  other  nations  also  occurs  with  its  surplus 
capital ;  no  other  quarter  of  the  globe  offers  better  prospects  for 
the  investment  of  capital  and  for  a  greater  rate  of  return.  The 
"manifest  destiny"  of  Argentine  depends  for  the  present  entirely 
upon  the  development  of  its  commercial  relations  with  the  rest 
of  the  world.  It  must  convert  itself  into  the  granary  and  the  meat 
market  of  Europe. 

The  closest  bonds  of  mutual  interest  unite  Argentina  with 
Europe,  because  being  producers  of  unlike  commodities,  the 
European  markets  consume  our  exportation  and  our  markets  con- 
sume theirs.  With  the  rest  of  America  our  interchange  of  trade 
must  be  upon  a  smaller  scale,  because  for  more  than  a  century  to 
come  we  shall  be  countries  producing  similar  commodities.  There- 
fore, our  respective  markets  will  not  reciprocally  serve  to  buy  the 
excess  of  production,  but  only  that  which  by  reason  of  climate  or 
industrial  development  is  to  be  found  or  manufactured  in  any 
other  country  than  our  own.  This  has  happened  to  us  notably  in 
the  case  of  the  United  States  with  its  tremendous  industrial 
expansion.  In  order  to  fulfill  this  "manifest  destiny,"  we  need 
pax  nutlta  with  the  whole  world.  We  need  to  give  attention 
exclusively  to  our  development  withoul  intermeddling  in  that  of 
others.     In     this    is  summed    up    everything.      Hence   our    intor- 

(729) 


152  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 

national  policy  has  to  be  pacific  and  neutral ;  we  must  be  every 
man's  friend,  and  shun  imperialistic  fancies.  The  "splendid 
isolation"  of  England  fits  her  condition  and  her  inclination.  We 
must  work  and  we  must  be  allowed  to  work.  Our  social  evolution 
still  requires  a  century  to  acquire  a  definite  contour.  Though 
results  may  be  foreseen  from  their  beginnings,  it  is  not  possible 
to  foretell  what  will  be  the  future  Argentine  type,  physically, 
mentally  or  materially. 

For  the  present,  the  only  proper  thing  for  us  to  do  is  to  devote 
ourselves  exclusively  to  the  exploitation  of  our  resources  for  we 
have  seen  how  much  effort  will  be  required  to  assimulate  our 
population,  to  form  a  national  spirit,  to  build  up  a  great  future 
nation,  to  develop  an  administration  which  shall  be  a  model  ot 
honesty  and  scientific  preparation,  and  to  adapt  the  republic  to  its 
future  needs  by  public  works  and  institutions,  and  by  showing 
ourselves  firm  in  faith  and  effective  in  works. 

The  present  social  tendencies  in  Argentine  evolution  give 
promise  of  a  great  future  for  the  country.  The  nation  is  not 
hesitating  or  vacillating  before  the  realization  of  its  manifest 
destiny.  It  follows  with  profound  interest  the  new  and  colossal 
social  experiment,  which  is  unfolding  to  the  view  of  the  world 
the  different  phases  of  the  formation  of  a  nation  in  whose 
development  the  shoals  are  being  avoided  where  others  were 
wrecked,  and  which  is  putting  into  practice  the  improvements  sug- 
gested by  the  experience  of  the  other  nations  in  order  to  realize 
the  new  evolution  easily,  prudently,  and  successfully. 


(73o) 


SPECIAL  VOLUMES 


The  United  States  as  a  World  Power 
The  United  States  and  Latin  America 
The  Government  in  its  Relation  to  Industry 
American  Colonial  Policy  and  Administration 
Foreign  Policy  of  the  United  States— Political 

and  Commercial 
Federal  Regulation  of  Corporations 
Federal  Regulation  of  Industry 
Administration  of  Justice  in  the  United  States 
Corporations  and  Public  Welfare 
Tariff  Problems — American  and  British 
Tariffs,  Reciprocity  and  Foreign  Trade 
Tariff  Revision 

Railway  and  Traffic  Problems 
Electric  Railway  Transportation 
Child  Labor,  Vols.  I,  II,  in,  IV  and  V 
Race  Improvement  in  the  United  States 
The  Public  Health  Movement 
Social  Legislation  and  Activity 
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chises 


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tions 
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Bonds  as  Investment  Securities 
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Lessons  of  the  Financial  Crisis 
Banking  Problems 
Labor  Problems,  Vols.  I  and  U 
The  Improvement  of  Labor  Conditions  is  the 

United  States 
Labor  and  Wages 
The  Settlement  of  Labor  Disputes 
American  Waterways 
Regulation  of  the  Liquor  Traffic 
Conservation  of  Natural  Resources 
Chinese  and  Japanese  in  America 
The  New  South 
Public  Recreation  Facilities 


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